People's experiences during conflict are not gender neutral. The impacts of armed conflict as well as the coping strategies adopted by people in the exigencies of the context tend to differ between men and women. Gender as an important element in determining vulnerability becomes even more acute in the conflict-affected situation.

However, men and women cannot be defined as homogeneous categories whose conflict experiences can be crudely divided along their gender-prescribed roles. It has to be recognized that, besides numerous gender-sensitive constraints, conflict also accentuates resourcefulness in adoption of coping and survival strategies with progressive and empowering gender role changes and fluidity thus occurring in such contexts.

The post-conflict reintegration and reconstruction processes offer a window of opportunity for enhancing women's and men's socio-economic security rather than for re-establishing the status quo ante, including the gender stereotypes and traditional gender division of labour. Therefore, the promotion of a more equitable, just and inclusive society with women and other previously vulnerable and socially excluded groups becoming full players should be one of the overall goals of post-conflict interventions.

Nevertheless, the new post-conflict reconstruction, institutions, structures, policies and laws that are put in place tend to lack the special gender sensitivity required in this context, and therefore they reintroduce the pre-war gender-biased positions and emphasize women's reproductive roles, eroding the strategic gains that accrue to women during war. Women's associations and groups therefore have important advocacy and advisory roles to play in the conflict-affected context to ensure serious consideration of gender concerns.

The importance of including gender concerns in all peace building, postconflict recovery and reconstruction has been recognized by a number of UN resolutions (such as UN Security Council Resolution 1325), meetings and other events in recent years. For example, both the 1995 Beijing Fourth World Conference on Women and the 2000 Beijing +5 Conference covered this subject among other issues.

Despite this trend, consideration of women's concerns and other gender issues in post-conflict contexts, as well as in the general reintegration, reconstruction and peace-building processes, continues to be inadequate in research, policies, action programmes and debates on current conflicts. Thus the gender differences in human security in post-conflict situations continue to require focus.

Although consequences of armed conflicts affect all population groups, women appear to bear a disproportionate burden owing to the specific nature of the conflicts today. As far back as 1944, the International Labour Organization drew attention to the situation of women in the post-conflict context through the adoption of some standards on the issue. One of these standards is the International Labour Recommendation No. 71 concerning Employment Organization, Transition from War to Peace, which covers some of the vulnerable groups in the conflict and post-conflict context, especially youth, women and disabled persons. With specific reference to women and gender equality, the Recommendation states that: "The redistribution of the women workers in the economy should be organized on the principle of complete equality of opportunity for men and women on the basis of their individual merit, skill and experience, without prejudice to the provisions of the international labour conventions and recommendations concerning the employment of women."

The discussions that took place at the International Labour Conference in 1944 and a resolution adopted on the conflict issue also covered a number of concerns including employment of women. This was in recognition of the fact that special action is necessary to ensure that women as well as men do in fact benefit from the training, retraining and other measures undertaken for employment in the conflict-affected context and that the principle of gender equality is observed.

Still, the special situation of women and other gender perspectives related to this context remain under-emphasized in employment and other interventions. This trend can be used as one indicator of the general lack of gender perspective. An ILO Expert Meeting on the Design of Guidelines for Training and Employment of Ex-Combatants (July 1995), for example, observed that "there has been inadequate planning for women" in post-conflict societies and, therefore, called for action in this area. The pursuit of peace, reintegration and reconstruction needs to go along with equality to avoid compounding old problems, such as discrimination against women, social exclusion and the feminization of poverty.

The Platform for Action adopted by the Fourth World Conference on Women (September 1995) acknowledges this and, therefore, has as one of its critical areas of concern, "the effects of armed or other kinds of conflict on women, including those living under foreign occupation". It recognizes that a peaceful environment is vital for women's advancement. It notes the serious human rights violations against women in such contexts (such as systematic rape, enforced prostitution, sexual slavery and other indecent assaults) as well as the large numbers of women and children among refugees, internally displaced persons and civilian casualties who tend to outnumber the casualties among combatants. Additionally, it draws attention to the heavy increase in the burden of women stemming from the rapid escalation of female heads of households and from caring for the large numbers of injured people. It acknowledges the important role of women and their resourcefulness in such situations. It calls, inter alia, for: women's greater participation in decision-making, conflict resolution and peace building; the protection of women in situations of armed conflict; a reduction in human rights abuses; promotion of the vocational and other skills training and self-reliance of conflict-affected women; and promotion of the human rights of women in such contexts. Gender analysis and planning require serious integration in conflict and post-conflict programming, such as in the fields of skills training and employment promotion, to ensure that such programming promotes gender equality.

Armed conflicts have significant impacts on households and the community. As confirmed in ILO studies, the major shifts in household structure are characterized by the drastic decline in the male population and the increase in the number of female-headed households. As a result, more women may engage in income-generating work, while some may lose access to land and labour or more secure livelihoods. In addition, women's work in the household increases due to the increase in the size of households often accompanied by the greater number of dependants, as well as due to the general deterioration of working and living conditions.

The drastic decline in the male population also means that there are large numbers of widows and single mothers in conflict-affected countries. Widowhood affects women's social status, physical safety, identity and mobility and their access to services as well as their rights related to property, land and inheritance. Women whose husbands are declared missing are facing even more difficulties, since their status is not officially recognized. Furthermore, displacement and the increase of violence contribute to the overall feeling of insecurity, uncertainty, and isolation, thus breaking social structures and community support mechanisms. Rebuilding depleted trust and cohesion within the communities is an important part of post-conflict recovery, as community rebuilding often reflects on the context-specific issues depending on the impact of conflict and violence.

The erosion of social capital has important gender implications during and after a conflict. Recent research showed that gender identities that play an important role in determining and restoring trust have significant implications for the roles of different organizations in rebuilding social capital. Institutions, organizations and informal networks that are major actors in shaping the conflict and the post-conflict recovery and in which, consequently, the social capital often erodes or reconstructs the first are more usually men dominated. On the other hand, the experiences show that women and women-run organizations that often build on solidarity of the experienced fear, violence and traumas tend to gain more trust by the communities and to play a critical role in bringing about peace and rebuilding the trust and cohesion in communities.

As identified in the ILO and other studies, armed conflicts impose challenges to the traditional gender roles, and men and women may be pressured to adhere to the traditionally imposed ideals of masculinity and femininity (ILO, 1998a). Men are often portrayed as the defenders of their culture and are expected to be aggressive, dominating and violent. On the contrary, women are proclaimed "mothers of the nation" and are expected to support their brothers, husbands and fathers.

The ability of men and women to adhere to these prescribed gender roles may cause frustration, loss of self-respect and trigger violence. For example, an ACORD study in Northern Uganda has found that the conflict crucially challenged the traditional norms of masculinity such as marriage, fatherhood, and material and security provision. Heavy militarization and displacement limited the ability of many men to provide for their families and fulfil their duties as husbands and fathers. Due to the lack of opportunities to gain assets (cattle or cash) necessary to enter married life, many young men were prevented from starting their families and getting recognition from their community. The study also showed that, although many men were not able to behave according to the norms of masculinity, it was difficult for them not to try to conform to these norms. Men's inability to reach these gender-constructed norms often means disempowerment in the public sphere, to which some retaliate by exercising power in the domestic sphere over their children and wives.

On the other hand, ideals of femininity in many cultures often embody willingness to find non-confrontational solutions and to work for the good of the community. As such, women are often connected to the rejection of war and conflict. However, women are also active members of political movements and armed forces because they are committed to the political, religious or economic goals of those involved in conflict. While during the conflict their participation is often welcomed, their gender identity becomes problematic once the communities start to recover.

Women's personal experiences related to increased participation in the political, social and economic sphere may challenge the existing gender relations and norms, as for many women entering into the public sphere represents an empowering experience. The traditional gender division of labour may break down as more women enter the labour market, often engaging in traditionally male occupations. However, the conflict and post-conflict recovery period may also revive traditional values, thus pressuring women to resume their traditional gender roles.

Since the nature of conflict and its impacts are likely to differ between and within communities of a conflict-affected country, it is best to undertake a community-based needs assessment utilizing participatory methodologies in order to understand and thus address localized issues in an inclusive manner.

Particular attention needs to be paid to those who might be excluded from regular community structures, as social exclusion is likely to increase for some groups during and after conflict (e.g. female ex-combatants, women who are viewed by their communities to have adopted socially unacceptable practices, those who are known to have contracted STDs including HIV/AIDS, etc). This approach is more likely to increase the visibility of women and the gender differentiated needs and interests arising out of conflict.

With respect to demographic changes, the evidence presented illustrates that the number of women who become the sole providers for their families increases as a consequence of conflict. Therefore, this increases their need for Women and other Gender concerns in Post-conflict Reconstruction. At the same time, the burden of women within the home tends to intensify. In order for women to participate in employment and training programmes which will assist them in achieving economic self-sufficiency, consideration must be given to the timing and location of training programmes in relation to the extent and nature of women's obligations.

Experience shows that reintegration programmes for refugee and internally displaced populations tend to neglect "remainee" populations, thus producing further conflicts and tensions. This situation therefore argues again for a more holistic approach to programming, with opportunities open to all community members rather than to specific beneficiary groups. Furthermore, it should be remembered that in Mozambique and Guatemala refugee women lost out because the skills they gained during their period of refuge were not sustained or followed up. Efforts should be made to utilize skills which have been acquired, such as training of trainers, etc. It should also be recognized that some refugees and displaced persons will not return to their places of origin and will construct a new life or continue in a new community. The line blurs between displacement and resettlement.

An opportunity emerges to correct gender stereotypes in educational materials and to increase the number of women trainers. In addition, there is an opportunity to draw women into non-traditional skill areas, given the shift in gender roles during conflict. The challenge is to identify skill areas into which women have moved and to support them (e.g. appropriate extension services in agriculture). Training in life skills is needed to assist people to adapt to the new environments in which they may be located (e.g. rural-urban migration).

Deterioration of the health both of women themselves and their family members as a result of the conflict may be a prohibiting factor to their participation in employment and training programmes and may restrict the kinds of activities they are able to undertake. However, additional income is necessary to pay for medical care.

It is necessary to identify survival or coping strategies which have had a positive transformative role in gender relations at the household and community level and to work toward supporting them through extension of appropriate employment and training opportunities. Additionally, it is essential to reduce women's resort to negative (indecent) strategies by providing alternatives and reaching out to those who may have become socially excluded and increasingly more vulnerable due to the coping mechanisms adopted (e.g. sex work).

The non-involvement of women in government and policy-making arenas and the often failure to cover gender issues in peace accords and other framework documents may indicate a lack of commitment to and possible hostility toward adopting gender-sensitive policies. Yet the fluid post-conflict situation can create a window of opportunity to promote gender equality in the employment field through national policy and commitment to international labour standards and the implementation of appropriate labour market interventions.

Failing to seize this opportunity may create the potential for women to be further marginalized and for gender inequality to persist. Hence, there is a need to build institutional partnerships in an effort to more systematically ensure that gender is taken into account at all levels and across all programme areas.

Finally, the collection and analysis of gender-sensitive labour data may be an important contribution to conflict prevention as part of essential early warning and response work. For example, recent studies suggest that a large percentage of unemployed young men are an indicator of potential instability, as they are prone to entering into the illegal drugs and arms trade or the ranks of militants and fighters. Consequently, the retraining or employment-creation response at the micro level may provide alternatives to participation in armed forces. Clearly there is a need for engendering pre-conflict preparedness and mitigation strategies, with a special focus on the micro level, to ensure proactive and effective post-conflict responses.

* Eugenia Date-Bah is director of the ILO InFocus (International Focus) Programme on Crisis Response and Reconstruction and former manager of the ILO Action Programme on Skills and Entrepreneurship Training for Countries Emerging from Armed Conflict.

* This article is based on extracts from 'Women and other Gender Concerns in Post-Conflict Reconstruction and Job Creation Efforts'. The article is part of a collection of articles in a book entitled 'Jobs After War: A Critical Challenge in the Peace and Reconstruction Puzzle', edited by Eugenia Date-Bah and published by the InFocus Programme on Crisis Response and Reconstruction of the ILO. The publication documents some of the ILO's experience in tackling the post conflict job challenge. ILO publications can be purchased on line at or email [email][email protected]